All contents are Copyrighted © by WebPaws.com, 1998 - 2005 with the exclusion of the music which is Copyrighted © by Richard (Dick) C. Allen, 1990-2005. All Rights Reserved.
Music is credited to Dick C. Allen currently residing in Atlanta, GA. Mr. Allen is a musician (pianist), who wrote, composed, and played all the music found in this sight.
The main index uses part of a photograph called Iroquois Sunset, Copyright (c) David O. Stillings 1993
COPYRIGHT BASICS
WHAT COPYRIGHT IS
Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of the
United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to the authors of "original works of
authorship" including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other
intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and
unpublished works. Section 106 of the Copyright Act generally gives the
owner of copyright the exclusive right to do and to authorize others to do the
following:
-- To reproduce the copyrighted work in copies or phonorecords;
-- To prepare derivative works based upon the copyrighted work;
-- To distribute copies or phonorecords of the copyrighted work
to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by
rental, lease, or lending;
-- To perform the copyrighted work publicly, in the case of
literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works,
pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
and
-- To display the copyrighted work publicly, in the case of
literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works,
pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works,
including the individual images of a motion picture or other
audiovisual work.
It is illegal for anyone to violate any of the rights provided by the Act to the
owner of copyright. These rights, however, are not unlimited in scope.
Sections 107 through 119 of the Copyright Act establish limitations on these
rights. In some cases, these limitations are specified exemptions from
copyright liability. One major limitation is the doctrine of "fair use," which is
given a statutory basis in section 107 of the Act. In other instances, the
limitation takes the form of a "compulsory license" under which certain limited
uses of copyrighted works are permitted upon payment of specified royalties
and compliance with statutory conditions. For further information about the
limitations of any of these rights, consult the Copyright Act or write to the
Copyright Office.
WHO CAN CLAIM COPYRIGHT
Copyright protection subsists from the time the work is created in fixed form;
that is, it is an incident of the process of authorship. The copyright in the work
of authorship immediately becomes the property of the author who created it.
Only the author or those deriving their rights through the author can rightfully
claim copyright.
In the case of works made for hire, the employer and not the employee is
presumptively considered the author. Section 101 of the copyright statute
defines a "work made for hire" as:
(1) a work prepared by an employee within the scope of his or
her employment; or
(2) a work specially ordered or commissioned for use as a
contribution to a collective work, as a part of a motion
picture or other audiovisual work, as a translation, as a
supplementary work, as a compilation, as an instructional
text, as a test, as answer material for a test, or as an
atlas, if the parties expressly agree in a written instrument
signed by them that the work shall be considered a work made
for hire....
The authors of a joint work are co-owners of the copyright in the work, unless
there is an agreement to the contrary.
Copyright in each separate contribution to a periodical or other collective work
is distinct from copyright in the collective work as a whole and vests initially
with the author of the contribution.
Two General Principles
-- Mere ownership of a book, manuscript, painting, or any other
copy or phonorecord does not give the possessor the
copyright. The law provides that transfer of ownership of
any material object that embodies a protected work does not
of itself convey any rights in the copyright.
-- Minors may claim copyright, but state laws may regulate the
business dealings involving copyrights owned by minors. For
information on relevant state laws, consult an attorney.
COPYRIGHT AND NATIONAL ORIGIN OF THE WORK
Copyright protection is available for all unpublished works, regardless of the
nationality or domicile of the author.
Published works are eligible for copyright protection in the United
States if any one of the following conditions is met:
-- On the date of first publication, one or more of the authors
is a national or domiciliary of the United States or is a
national, domiciliary, or sovereign authority of a foreign
nation that is a party to a copyright treaty to which the
United States is also a party, or is a stateless person
wherever that person may be domiciled; or
-- The work is first published in the United States or in a
foreign nation that, on the date of first publication, is a
party to the Universal Copyright Convention; or the work
comes within the scope of a Presidential proclamation; or
-- The work is first published on or after March 1, 1989, in a
foreign nation that on the date of first publication, is a
party to the Berne Convention; or, if the work is not first
published in a country party to the Berne Convention, it is
published (on or after March 1,1989) within 30 days of first
publication in a country that is party to the Berne
Convention; or the work, first published on or after March
1, 1989, is a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work that is
incorporated in a permanent structure located in the United
States; or, if the work, first published on or after March
1, 1989, is a published audiovisual work, all the authors are
legal entities with headquarters in the United States.
WHAT WORKS ARE PROTECTED
Copyright protects "original works of authorship" that are fixed in a tangible
form of expression. The fixation need not be directly perceptible, so long as it
may be communicated with the aid of a machine or device. Copyrightable
works include the following categories:
(1) literary works;
(2) musical works, including any accompanying words;
(3) dramatic works, including any accompanying music;
(4) pantomimes and choreographic works;
(5) pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works;
(6) motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
(7) sound recordings; and
(8) architectural works.
These categories should be viewed quite broadly: for example, computer
programs and most "compilations" are registrable as
"literary works;" maps and architectural plans are registrable as
"pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works."
WHAT IS NOT PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT
Several categories of material are generally not eligible for statutory copyright
protection. These include among others:
-- Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of ex-
pression. For example: choreographic works that have not
been notated or recorded, or improvisational speeches or
performances that have not been written or recorded.
-- Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar symbols
or designs; mere variations of typographic ornamentation,
lettering, or coloring; mere listings of ingredients or
contents.
-- Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts,
principles, discoveries, or devices, as distinguished from
a description, explanation, or illustration.
-- Works consisting entirely of information that is common
property and containing no original authorship. For example:
standard calendars, height and weight charts, tape measures
and rulers, and lists or tables taken from public documents
or other common sources.
HOW TO SECURE A COPYRIGHT
Copyright Secured Automatically Upon Creation
The way in which copyright protection is secured under the present law is
frequently misunderstood. No publication or registration or other action in the
Copyright Office is required to secure
copyright (see following NOTE). There are, however, certain definite
advantages to registration.
* * * * NOTE: Before 1978, statutory copyright was
generally secured by the act of publication with notice of copyright, assuming
compliance with all other relevant statutory conditions. Works in the public
domain on January 1, 1978 ( for example, works published without satisfying
all conditions for securing statutory copyright under the Copyright Act of 1909)
remain in the public domain under the current act.
Statutory copyright could also be secured before 1978 by the act of
registration in the case of certain unpublished works and works eligible for ad
interim copyright. The current Act automatically extends to full term (sectin
304 sets the term) copyright for all works including those subject to ad interim
copyright if ad interim registration has been made on or before June 30, 1978.
* * * *
Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and a work
is "created" when it is fixed in a copy or phonorecord for the first time.
"Copies" are material objects from which a work can be read or visually
perceived either directly or with the aid of a machine or device, such as books,
manuscripts, sheet music, film, videotape, or microfilm. "Phonorecords" are
material objects embodying fixations of sounds (excluding, by statutory
definition, motion picture soundtracks), such as cassette tapes,
CD's, or LP's. Thus, for example, a song (the "work") can be fixed in sheet
music ("copies") or in phonograph disks ("phonorecords"), or both.
If a work is prepared over a period of time, the part of the work that is fixed on
a particular date constitutes the created work as of that date.
PUBLICATION
Publication is no longer the key to obtaining statutory copyright as it was
under the Copyright Act of 1909. However, publication remains important to
copyright owners.
The Copyright Act defines publication as follows:
"Publication" is the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the
public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending.
The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for
purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display
constitutes publication. A public performance or display of a work does not of
itself constitute publication.
A further discussion of the definition of "publication" can be found in the
legislative history of the Act. The legislative reports define "to the public" as
distribution to persons under no explicit or implicit restrictions with respect to
disclosure of the contents. The reports state that the definition makes it clear
that the sale of phonorecords constitutes publication of the underlying work,
for example, the musical, dramatic, or literary work embodied in a
phonorecord. The reports also state that it is clear that any form of
dissemination in which the material object does not change hands, for
example, performances or displays on television, is not a publication no
matter how many people are exposed to the work. However, when copies or
phonorecords are offered for sale or lease to a group of wholesalers,
broadcasters, or motion picture theaters, publication does take place if the
purpose is further distribution, public performance, or public display.
Publication is an important concept in the copyright law for several reasons:
-- When a work is published, it may bear a notice of copyright
to identify the year of publication and the name of the
copyright owner and to inform the public that the work is
protected by copyright. Works published before March 1,
1989, must bear the notice or risk loss of copyright
protection. (See discussion "notice of copyright" below.)
-- Works that are published in the United States are subject to
mandatory deposit with the Library of Congress. (See
discussion on "mandatory deposit," below.)
-- Publication of a work can affect the limitations on the
exclusive rights of the copyright owner that are set forth
in sections 107 through 120 of the law.
-- The year of publication may determine the duration of
copyright protection for anonymous and pseudonymous works
(when the author's identity is not revealed in the records
of the Copyright Office) and for works made for hire.
-- Deposit requirements for registration of published works
differ from those for registration of unpublished works. (See
discussion on "registration procedures," below.)
NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT
For works first published on and after March 1, 1989, use of the copyright
notice is optional, though highly recommended. Before
March 1, 1989, the use of the notice was mandatory on all published works,
and any work first published before that date must bear a notice or risk loss of
copyright protection.
(The Copyright Office does not take a position on whether works first
published with notice before March 1, 1989, and reprinted and distributed on
and after March 1, 1989, must bear the copyright notice.)
Use of the notice is recommended because it informs the public that the work
is protected by copyright, identifies the copyright owner, and shows the year
of first publication. Furthermore, in the event that a work is infringed, if the
work carries a proper notice, the court will not allow a defendant to claim
"innocent infringement"
--that is, that he or she did not realize that the work is protected. (A
successful innocent infringement claim may result in a reduction in damages
that the copyright owner would otherwise receive.)
The use of the copyright notice is the responsibility of the copyright owner and
does not require advance permission from, or registration with, the Copyright
Office.
Form of Notice for Visually Perceptible Copies
The notice for visually perceptible copies should contain all of the following
three elements:
1. The copyright symbol (the letter "C" in a circle), or the
word "Copyright," or the abbreviation "Copr."; and
2. The year of first publication of the work. In the case of
compilations or derivative works incorporating previously
published material, the year date of first publication of
the compilation or derivative work is sufficient. The year
date may be omitted where a pictorial, graphic, or
sculptural work, with accompanying textual matter, if any,
is reproduced in or on greeting cards, postcards,
stationery, jewelry, dolls, toys, or any useful article;
and
3. The name of the owner of copyright in the work, or an
abbreviation by which the name can be recognized, or a
generally known alternative designation of the owner.
The "C in a circle" notice is used only on "visually perceptible copies."
Certain kinds of works_for example, musical, dramatic, and literary
works_may be fixed not in "copies" but by means of sound in an audio
recording. Since audio recordings such as audio tapes and phonograph disks
are "phonorecords" and not "copies," the
"C in a circle" notice is not used to indicate protection of the underlying
musical, dramatic, or literary work that is recorded.
(Stuff deleted regarding phonorecords.)
Publications Incorporating United States Government Works
Works by the U.S. Government are not eligible for copyright protection. For
works published on and after March 1, 1989, the previous notice requirement
for works consisting primarily of one or more U.S. Government works has
been eliminated. However, use of the copyright notice for these works is still
strongly recommended. Use of a notice on such a work will defeat a claim of
innocent infringement as previously described provided the notice also
includes a statement that identifies one of the following: those portions of the
work in which copyright is claimed or those portions that constitute U.S.
Government material.
An example is:
Copyright 1994 Jane Brown. Copyright claimed in
Chapters 7-10, exclusive of U.S. Government maps.
Works published before March 1, 1989, that consist primarily of one or more
works of the U.S. Government must bear a notice and the identifying
statement.
Unpublished Works
To avoid an inadvertent publication without notice, the author or other owner of
copyright may wish to place a copyright notice on any copies or phonorecords
that leave his or her control.
An appropriate notice for an unpublished work is:
Unpublished work Copyright 1994 Jane Doe.
Effect of Omission of the Notice or of Error in the Name or Date
The Copyright Act, in sections 405 and 406, provides procedures for correcting
errors and omissions of the copyright notice on works published on or after
January 1, 1978, and before March 1, 1989.
In general, if a notice was omitted or an error was made on copies distributed
on or after January 1, 1978, and before March 1, 1989, the copyright was not
automatically lost. Copyright protection may be maintained if registration for
the work has been made before or is made within 5 years after the publication
without notice, and a reasonable effort is made to add the notice to all copies
or phonorecords that are distributed to the public in the United
States after the omission has been discovered. For more information request
Circular 3.
HOW LONG COPYRIGHT PROTECTION ENDURES
Works Originally Created On or After January 1, 1978
A work that is created (fixed in tangible form for the first time) on or after
January 1, 1978, is automatically protected from the moment of its creation,
and is ordinarily given a term enduring for the author's life, plus an additional
50 years after the author's death. In the case of "a joint work prepared by two
or more authors who did not work for hire," the term lasts for 50 years after the
last surviving author's death. For works made for hire, and for anonymous and
pseudonymous works (unless the author's identity is revealed in Copyright
Office records), the duration of copyright will be 75 years from publication or
100 years from creation, whichever is shorter.
Works Originally Created Before January 1, 1978, But Not Published or
Registered by That Date
Works that were created but not published or registered for copyright before
January 1, 1978, have been automatically brought under the statute and are
now given Federal copyright protection. The duration of copyright in these
works will generally be computed in the same way as for works created on or
after January 1, 1978: the life-plus-50 or 75/100-year terms will apply to them
as well. The law provides that in no case will the term of copyright for works in
this category expire before December 31, 2002, and for works published on or
before December 31, 2002, the term of copyright will not expire before
December 31, 2027.
Works Originally Created and Published or
Registered Before January 1, 1978
Under the law in effect before 1978, copyright was secured either on the date
a work was published or on the date of registration if the work was registered
in unpublished form. In either case, the copyright endured for a first term of 28
years from the date it was secured. During the last (28th) year of the first
term, the copyright was eligible for renewal. The current copyright law has
extended the renewal term from 28 to 47 years for copyrights that were
subsisting on January 1, 1978, making these works eligible for a total term of
protection of 75 years.
Public Law 102-307, enacted on June 26, 1992, amended the Copyright
Act of 1976 to extend automatically the term of copyrights secured from
January 1, 1964, through December 31, 1977 to the further term of 47 years
and increased the filing fee from $12 to $20. This fee increase applies to all
renewal applications filed on or after June
29, 1992.
P.L. 102-307 makes renewal registration optional. There is no need to make
the renewal filing in order to extend the original 28-year copyright term to the
full 75 years. However, some benefits accrue to making a renewal registration
during the 28th year of the original term.
For more detailed information on the copyright term, write to the
Copyright Office and request Circulars 15, 15a, and 15t. For information on
how to search the Copyright Office records concerning the copyright status of
a work, request Circular 22.
TRANSFER OF COPYRIGHT
Any or all of the exclusive rights, or any subdivision of those rights, of the
copyright owner may be transferred, but the transfer of exclusive rights is not
valid unless that transfer is in writing and signed by the owner of the rights
conveyed (or such owner's duly authorized agent). Transfer of a right on a
nonexclusive basis does not require a written agreement.
A copyright may also be conveyed by operation of law and may be
bequeathed by will or pass as personal property by the applicable laws of
intestate succession.
Copyright is a personal property right, and it is subject to the various state
laws and regulations that govern the ownership, inheritance, or transfer of
personal property as well as terms of contracts or conduct of business. For
information about relevant state laws, consult an attorney.
Transfers of copyright are normally made by contract. The
Copyright Office does not have or supply any forms for such transfers.
However, the law does provide for the recordation in the Copyright Office of
transfers of copyright ownership. Although recordation is not required to make
a valid transfer between the parties, it does provide certain legal advantages
and may be required to validate the transfer as against third parties. For
information on recordation of transfers and other documents related to
copyright, request Circular 12.
Termination of Transfers
Under the previous law, the copyright in a work reverted to the author, if living,
or if the author was not living, to other specified beneficiaries, provided a
renewal claim was registered in the 28th year of the original term. [The
copyright in works eligible for renewal on or after June 26, 1992, will vest in the
name of the renewal claimant on the effective date of any renewal registration
made during the 28th year of the original term. Otherwise, the renewal
copyright will vest in the party entitled to claim renewal as of December 31st
of the 28th year.] The present law drops the renewal feature except for works
already in the first term of statutory protection when the present law took
effect. Instead, the present law permits termination of a grant of rights after 35
years under certain conditions by serving written notice on the transferee
within specified time limits.
For works already under statutory copyright protection before
1978, the present law provides a similar right of termination covering the newly
added years that extended the former maximum term of the copyright from 56
to 75 years. For further information, request Circulars 15a and 15t.
INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT PROTECTION
There is no such thing as an "international copyright" that will automatically
protect an author's writings throughout the entire world. Protection against
unauthorized use in a particular country depends, basically, on the national
laws of that country. However, most countries do offer protection to foreign
works under certain conditions, and these conditions have been greatly
simplified by international copyright treaties and conventions. For a list of
countries which maintain copyright relations with the
United States, request Circular 38a.
The United States belongs to both global, multilateral copyright treaties_the
Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) and the Berne
Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. The
United States was a founding member of the UCC, which came into force on
September 16, 1955. Generally, a work by a national or domiciliary of a
country that is a member of the UCC or a work first published in a UCC
country may claim protection under the UCC. If the work bears the notice of
copyright in the form and position specified by the UCC, this notice will satisfy
and substitute for any other formalities a UCC member country would
otherwise impose as a condition of copyright. A UCC notice should consist of
the symbol accompanied by the name of the copyright proprietor and the year
of first publication of the work.
By joining the Berne Convention on March 1, 1989, the United States gained
protection for its authors in all member nations of the
Berne Union with which the United States formerly had either no copyright
relations or had bilateral treaty arrangements. Members of the Berne Union
agree to a certain minimum level of copyright protection and agree to treat
nationals of other member countries like their own nationals for purposes of
copyright. A work first published in the United States or another Berne Union
country (or first published in a non-Berne country, followed by publication
within 30 days in a Berne Union country) is eligible for protection in all Berne
member countries. There are no special requirements. For information on the
legislation implementing the Berne Convention, request Circular 93 from the
Copyright Office.
An author who wishes protection for his or her work in a particular country
should first find out the extent of protection of foreign works in that country. If
possible, this should be done before the work is published anywhere, since
protection may often depend on the facts existing at the time of first
publication.
If the country in which protection is sought is a party to one of the international
copyright conventions, the work may generally be protected by complying with
the conditions of the convention. Even if the work cannot be brought under an
international convention, protection under the specific provisions of the
country's national laws may still be possible. Some countries, however, offer
little or no copyright protection for foreign works.
COPYRIGHT REGISTRATION
In general, copyright registration is a legal formality intended to make a public
record of the basic facts of a particular copyright. However, except in one
specific situation,* registration is not a condition of copyright protection.
[*Under sections 405 and 406 of the Copyright Act, copyright registration may
be required to preserve a copyright on a work first published before March 1,
1989, that would otherwise be invalidated because the copyright notice was
omitted from the published copies or phonorecords, or the name or year was
omitted, or certain errors were made in the year date.] Even though
registration is not generally a requirement for protection, the copyright law
provides several inducements or advantages to encourage copyright owners to
make registration. Among these advantages are the following:
-- Registration establishes a public record of the copyright
claim;
-- Before an infringement suit may be filed in court,
registration is necessary for works of U.S. origin and for
foreign works not originating in a Berne Union country. (For
more information on when a work is of U.S. origin, request
Circular 93.);
-- If made before or within 5 years of publication, registration
will establish prima facie evidence in court of the validity
of the copyright and of the facts stated in the certificate;
and
-- If registration is made within 3 months after publication of
the work or prior to an infringement of the work, statutory
damages and attorney's fees will be available to the
copyright owner in court actions. Otherwise, only an award
of actual damages and profits is available to the copyright
owner.
-- Copyright registration allows the owner of the copyright to
record the registration with the U.S. Customs Service for
protection against the importation of infringing copies. For
additional information, request Publication No. 563 from:
Commissioner of Customs
ATTN: IPR Branch,
Room 2104
U.S. Customs Service
1301 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20229.
Registration may be made at any time within the life of the copyright. Unlike
the law before 1978, when a work has been registered in unpublished form, it
is not necessary to make another registration when the work becomes
published (although the copyright owner may register the published edition, if
desired).
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